What is Cognitive Development?

Cognitive development is the growth in mental abilities such as thinking, learning, problem-solving, memory, and language acquisition. It is concentrated in childhood and adolescence, though some brain development continues into adulthood. Experts widely recognize the four stages of cognitive development, which help identify normal growth patterns and potential cognitive delays. These stages not only help track development but also highlight the importance of early life experiences. What a child sees, hears, and feels in early years can shape how they think, learn, and relate to others for the rest of their lives.

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget developed a widely recognized theory outlining four stages of cognitive development. His theory explains how age affects cognitive function as brain capacity increases and children grow and change with their environment ^[1].

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

Infants and young toddlers learn through sensory experiences and motor activities. Automatic reflexes come first. Infants suck, grasp, and root. Children develop object permanence around eight to 12 months as they understand that objects continue to exist when out of sight. Around 18 to 24 months, children form mental images and begin to imitate behaviors of caregivers or siblings. 

2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

Children in the preoperational stage develop symbolic thinking and language skills but struggle with logical reasoning. They are egocentric, assuming others see the world as they do. Pretend play, believing that toys have feelings, and engaging in make-believe scenarios are common.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

Logical thinking emerges in the concrete operational stage of cognitive development. Children start to understand concepts such as conservation or the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement. They can also arrange and order objects based on size, color, or other criteria.

4. Formal Operational Stage (12 Years and Up)

Adolescents in the formal operational stage develop abstract thinking. Their problem-solving abilities, hypothetical reasoning, and moral compass expand. They consider moral or philosophical implications, think critically, and form independent opinions.

Supporting Cognitive Development

As children naturally progress through the stages of cognitive development, neurological and genetic components and environmental factors influence cognitive growth. According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, humans move through these four distinct stages early in life. However, the rate and success of a child’s progression depend on many personal and environmental factors ^[1]. For example, common contributing factors to cognitive development include life experiences, quality of attachments or caregiver relationships, social interactions, or education opportunities.

Caregiver involvement in implementing specific strategies enhances cognitive abilities, while neglect, trauma, and lack of stimulation can hinder a child’s development. On a larger scale, the involvement of extended caregivers and the community contributes to developmental success. 

Family caregivers and others in the child’s support system promote cognitive development by providing a child with an enriching environment and engaging in activities that enhance mental skills. Some effective strategies include:

• Interactive Play: Engaging children in problem-solving games, puzzles, and imaginative play.
  
• Encouraging Curiosity: Providing opportunities for hands-on learning and creative exploration.
  
• Reading and Storytelling: Enhancing language skills and cognitive abilities by reading together and encouraging age-appropriate solo reading.
  
• Healthy Lifestyle Choices: Ensuring proper nutrition, exercise, and sufficient sleep to support healthy brain function.
  
• Socialize the Child: Encouraging peer play and providing opportunities for the child to spend time with other children and adults.
  
• Continuous Learning: Encouraging lifelong learning and skill development to maintain cognitive agility.

Cognitive and Physical Development

Cognitive and physical development in children are deeply interconnected. Research shows that motor development is not just a physical process, but also supports cognitive growth by enabling exploration, interaction, and problem-solving in early childhood ^[2]. Taking an integrated approach to early education that includes both physical activity and cognitive engagement provides children with enriched developmental opportunities. 

Strong fine and gross motor skills allow children to interact with and explore their surroundings more effectively, creating valuable opportunities for learning and cognitive development. For example, as a young child learns to manipulate objects with their hands, the world opens up to new experiences that stimulate problem-solving or memory skills. 

While developing, motor development and cognitive abilities are closely linked, playing a key role in a child’s overall growth. This connection emphasizes the value of early education programs that combine physical activity with cognitive learning to support well-rounded development.

Children’s Cognitive Delays 

A cognitive developmental delay occurs when a child fails to reach or is slow to reach one or more developmental milestones. Developmental delays are common among children, and their prevalence is increasing. The prevalence of any diagnosed developmental disability in children aged 3-17 years increased from 7.40% in 2019 to 8.56% in 2021 ^[3]. Although many cognitive delays improve over time, early intervention is key to preventing lasting challenges with learning, language, and social-emotional development.

Indicators of developmental delays to watch for vary at each developmental stage and based on the child’s age, but they may include: 

• Speech Delays: A child has challenges using words or understanding language in an age-appropriate manner.
  
• Delays in Fine or Gross Motor Skills: A parent notes that their baby or toddler is not rolling over or walking (gross motor skills) or their young child cannot grasp a pencil (fine motor skills).
  
• Inability to Follow Instructions: Difficulty focusing on, understanding, or completing age-appropriate tasks.
  
• Social Withdrawal: Avoiding peer interactions or struggling with basic social skills.
  
• Frustration with Learning: Displaying excessive frustration when completing age-appropriate cognitive tasks and school assignments.
  
• Lack of Curiosity: Reduced interest in exploring new environments or engaging in interactive play.

When parents have concerns about their child’s development, consulting a pediatrician is a helpful first step. Pediatricians, often working alongside child psychologists and developmental specialists, evaluate a child’s cognitive abilities in relation to age-specific milestones. If delays are identified, they may recommend targeted therapies or specialized learning programs. Taking action early can make a significant difference, improving long-term outcomes and supporting healthy development. ^[4]. 

Cognitive Delays and Mental Health 

When they are not addressed, cognitive development delays can lead to frustration, anxiety, and low self-esteem, as well as mental health issues ^[2]. Children who experience cognitive disorders may limit interactions with peers, which can contribute to isolation and emotional distress. Additionally, children with conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit cognitive delays that affect academic performance, social engagements, and emotional well-being.

Psychotic-like experiences (PLEs), also known as psychotic experiences or subclinical psychotic symptoms, include non-clinical unusual thought content and perceptual experiences. This can manifest as hearing voices no one else hears, seeing figures in the dark, or believing the child has magical powers.

PLEs are relatively common occurrences, with approximately 17%–60% of youth experiencing some form of PLEs ^[5]. Research suggests that cognitive impairments in working memory, executive functioning, and verbal reasoning may increase the likelihood of experiencing PLEs, although most children outgrow these experiences and behaviors ^[6]. Persistent episodes warrant further evaluation.

Studies indicate that untreated cognitive delays can raise the risk of developing mental health conditions like depression and anxiety disorders ^[7]. Mental health disorders can impact a person’s ability to adapt to society. These challenges can also affect self-confidence and motivation, making it even harder for children to reach their full potential. 

Addressing cognitive development delays early is essential to support mental health. Through targeted therapies, specialized educational support, and community involvement, children can acquire the skills they need to thrive in all areas of life.  

Impacts of Age on Cognition

While cognitive delays in children highlight the importance of early brain development, it is also valuable to understand how cognition continues to evolve and change with age across the lifespan. In adolescence and adulthood, cognitive abilities typically stabilize, though the influence of lifestyle choices, continued education, and environmental factors. By adopting strategies such as continued education, exercise, healthy eating habits, and mindfulness, adults can support cognitive resilience and increase their opportunities for maintaining mental acuity throughout their lives.

Even with a healthy lifestyle and strategies in place that support healthy cognition, aging naturally leads to some cognitive decline for many people. Declines in memory and processing speed are two notable examples. While mild forgetfulness is common, significant cognitive impairments could indicate neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, the most common cognitive disorder in seniors ^[8]. 

There is no known cure for Alzheimer’s disease or other forms of dementia, but early diagnosis provides the best opportunity for interventions, medication success, and access to professional care. Modern treatments can slow the progression of the disease for some seniors. Professional support helps to preserve cognitive functioning, independence, dignity, and the senior’s quality of life.  

Understanding is Empowerment

Each stage of cognitive development is exciting and enriching. These stages are fundamental aspects of human growth that influence how people learn, think, and interact with their environment. Understanding the stages of cognitive development allows parents, educators, and healthcare professionals to support a child’s optimal mental growth. Age continues to impact cognitive functioning, and adopting healthy lifestyle strategies helps preserve cognition and quality of life for older adults. 

Recognizing signs of cognitive development delays and addressing them early can prevent many long-term challenges. Additionally, acknowledging the connection between cognitive development delays and mental health issues is important and requires appropriate and timely intervention. Developing cognitive skills through education, social engagement, a healthy environment, and lifestyle choices can enhance cognitive function and well-being at every stage of life.